How can I transfer data from my broken phone without USB debugging enabled?

If USB debugging is off, connecting to a PC using ADB won't really work. Unfortunately, without a functioning screen, you'll have a hard time accessing your files directly.

Honestly, your best bet is to get the screen fixed. If the screen is too broken to use, that’s going to be a major hurdle. You might want to check if the phone supports MHL or USB-C video output. Otherwise, you could try using an OTG cable with a keyboard or mouse, but it's tricky if you have a pattern lock. If you just have a PIN, you might be able to type it in once you connect it properly.

Can you actually use a Bluetooth mouse? That could help you navigate the phone if the screen’s not completely dead. You still might need to get it repaired to enable file transfers, though.

I think the straightforward answer here is that you can't really do much without getting the screen fixed first. Data transfers like this usually need an operational interface, and with that broken, you're out of luck.